Methods and apparatus for improving the cold starting capability of a fuel cell

ABSTRACT

Apparatus and methods of ceasing operation of an electric power generating system improve the cold starting capability of the system. The system comprises a fuel cell stack connectable to an external circuit for supplying power to the external circuit. The stack comprises at least one solid polymer fuel cell, and the system further comprises a fuel passage for directing a fuel stream through the stack and an oxidant passage for directing an oxidant stream through the stack, a sensor assembly connected to the stack for monitoring a parameter indicative of stack performance, a controller for controlling at least one stack operating parameter, and a control system communicative with the sensor assembly and stack operating parameter controller. The method comprises adjusting at least one stack operating parameter to cause the stack to operate under a drying condition that causes a net outflux of water from the stack, operating the stack under the drying condition until the water content in the stack has been reduced, and interrupting supply of power from the stack to the external circuit.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/109,982 filed Mar. 28, 2002, now allowed, which claims the benefitunder 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/367,339 filed Mar. 28, 2001, which applications are incorporatedherein by reference in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to techniques to improve the cold startingcapabilities of an electric power generating system comprising a solidpolymer fuel cell, and in particular relates to methods and apparatusfor reducing water content in the fuel cell when the stack is shut down.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Electrochemical fuel cells convert fuel and oxidant to electricity andreaction product. Solid polymer electrochemical fuel cells generallyemploy a membrane electrode assembly (“MEA”) which comprises an ionexchange membrane or solid polymer electrolyte disposed between twoelectrodes typically comprising a layer of porous, electricallyconductive sheet material, such as carbon fiber paper or carbon cloth.The MEA contains a layer of catalyst, typically in the form of finelycomminuted platinum, at each membrane/electrode interface to induce thedesired electrochemical reaction. In operation the electrodes areelectrically coupled to provide a circuit for conducting electronsbetween the electrodes through an external circuit.

At the anode, the fuel stream moves through the porous anode substrateand is oxidized at the anode electrocatalyst layer. At the cathode, theoxidant stream moves through the porous cathode substrate and is reducedat the cathode electrocatalyst layer to form a reaction product.

In fuel cells employing hydrogen as the fuel and oxygen-containing air(or substantially pure oxygen) as the oxidant, the catalyzed reaction atthe anode produces hydrogen cations (protons) from the fuel supply. Theion exchange membrane facilitates the migration of protons from theanode to the cathode. In addition to conducting protons, the membraneisolates the hydrogen-containing fuel stream from the oxygen-containingoxidant stream. At the cathode electrocatalyst layer, oxygen reacts withthe protons that have crossed the membrane to form water as the reactionproduct. The anode and cathode reactions in hydrogen/oxygen fuel cellsare shown in the following equations:Anode reaction: H₂→2H⁺+2e ⁻Cathode reaction: ½O ₂+2H⁺+2e ⁻→H₂O

In typical fuel cells, the MEA is disposed between two electricallyconductive fluid flow field plates or separator plates. Fluid flow fieldplates have at least one flow passage formed in at least one of themajor planar surfaces thereof. The flow passages direct the fuel andoxidant to the respective electrodes, namely, the anode on the fuel sideand the cathode on the oxidant side. The fluid flow field plates act ascurrent collectors, provide support for the electrodes, provide accesschannels for the fuel and oxidant to the respective anode and cathodesurfaces, and provide channels for the removal of reaction products,such as water, formed during operation of the cell. Separator platestypically do not have flow passages formed in the surfaces thereof, butare used in combination with an adjacent layer of material whichprovides access passages for the fuel and oxidant to the respectiveanode and cathode electrocatalyst, and provides passages for the removalof reaction products. The preferred operating temperature range forsolid polymer fuel cells is typically 50° C. to 120° C., most typicallyabout 75° C. to 85° C.

Two or more fuel cells can be electrically connected together in seriesto increase the overall power output of the assembly. In seriesarrangements, one side of a given fluid flow field or separator platecan serve as an anode plate for one cell and the other side of the fluidflow field or separator plate can serve as the cathode plate for theadjacent cell. Such a multiple fuel cell arrangement is referred to as afuel cell stack, and is usually held together in its assembled state bytie rods and end plates. The stack typically includes inlet ports andmanifolds for directing the fluid fuel stream (such as substantiallypure hydrogen, methanol reformate or natural gas reformate, or amethanol-containing stream in a direct methanol fuel cell) and the fluidoxidant stream (such as substantially pure oxygen, oxygen-containing airor oxygen in a carrier gas such as nitrogen) to the individual fuel cellreactant flow passages. The stack also commonly includes an inlet portand manifold for directing a coolant fluid stream, typically water, tointerior passages within the stack to absorb heat generated by the fuelcell during operation. The stack also generally includes exhaustmanifolds and outlet ports for expelling the depleted reactant streamsand the reaction products such as water, as well as an exhaust manifoldand outlet port for the coolant stream exiting the stack. In a powergeneration system various fuel, oxidant and coolant conduits carry thesefluid streams to and from the fuel cell stack.

When an electrical load (comprising one or more load elements) is placedin an electrical circuit connecting the stack terminals, fuel andoxidant are consumed in direct proportion to the electrical currentdrawn by the load, which will vary with the ohmic resistance of theload.

Solid polymer fuel cells generally employ perfluorosulfonic ion exchangemembranes, such as those sold by DuPont under its NAFION® tradedesignation. When employing such membranes, the fuel and oxidantreactant streams are typically humidified before they are introduced tosolid polymer fuel cells so as to facilitate proton transport throughthe ion exchange membrane and to avoid drying (and damaging) themembrane separating the anode and cathode of each cell.

Each reactant stream exiting the fuel cell stack generally containswater. The outlet fuel stream from the anodes generally contains waterfrom the incoming fuel stream plus any product water drawn across themembrane from the cathode. The outlet oxidant stream from the cathodesgenerally contains water added to humidify the incoming oxidant streamplus product water formed at the cathode.

In some fuel cell applications, such as, for example, motiveapplications, it may be necessary or desirable to commence operation ofa solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell stack when the stack coretemperature is below the freezing temperature of water. As used herein,the freezing temperature of water means the freezing temperature of freewater, that is, 0° C. at 1 atmosphere. It may also be necessary ordesirable when ceasing operation of the solid polymer fuel cell stack toimprove the cold start capability and freeze tolerance of the stack byreducing the amount of water remaining within the fuel, oxidant andcoolant passages of the stack. Upon freezing, water remaining withinstack passages will expand and potentially damage structures within thestack such as, for example, the membrane/electrocatalyst interface, thereactant passageways, conduits and seals, as well as the porouselectrode substrate material.

If there is an expectation that a solid polymer fuel cell stack will besubjected to cold temperatures, especially temperatures below thefreezing temperature of water, one or more special start-up and shutdowntechniques and associated apparatus can be employed. These techniquescan improve the cold start capability and freeze tolerance of the stack,and improve the subsequent fuel cell performance. A measure ofelectrochemical fuel cell performance is the voltage output from thecell for a given current density. Higher performance is associated witha higher voltage output for a given current density or higher currentdensity for a given voltage output.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Water may be introduced into a fuel cell through either or both of theoxidant and fuel streams supplied to the fuel cell. Water is produced infuel cell by the electrochemical reaction at the cathode. Water canescape the fuel cell via one or both of the oxidant and fuel exhauststreams leaving the fuel cell. If the theoretical maximum amount ofwater exiting the fuel cell in vapor form (for example, via the outletreactant streams) is greater than the amount of water introduced andproduced, then the fuel cell will operate under a drying condition thatcauses the fuel cell to dehydrate. In this case there is a “net outflux”of water. Conversely, if the amount of water introduced and producedexceeds the theoretical maximum amount of water exiting the fuel cell invapor form, a wetting condition exists that causes water to temporarilyaccumulate in the cell (a net influx of water) until a steady state isachieved. A water balance exists when the influx of water and the waterproduced equals the theoretical outflux of water in vapor form.

A method of ceasing operation of an electric power generating systemcomprising a fuel cell stack connectable to an external circuit forsupplying power to the external circuit is provided. The stack comprisesat least one solid polymer fuel cell having a membrane electrodeassembly (MEA) comprising an anode, a cathode, and an ion exchangemembrane electrolyte interposed between the anode and the cathode. Thesystem further comprises a fuel passage for directing a fuel streamthrough the stack and an oxidant passage for directing an oxidant streamthrough the stack.

In one aspect, a method of ceasing operation of such an electric powergenerating system comprises:

-   -   (a) establishing a drying condition in which there is a net        outflux of water from the stack;    -   (b) operating the stack under the drying condition until the        water content in the stack has been reduced;        prior to interrupting the supply of power from the stack to the        external circuit. Step (a) can comprise adjusting at least one        stack operating parameter to cause the stack to operate under a        drying condition in which there is a net outflux of water from        the stack. Suitable operating parameters include, for example,        the stack temperature, the oxidant and/or fuel stream relative        humidities, stoichiometries, flow rates, or pressures.        Stoichiometry is the ratio of fuel or oxidant supplied to that        consumed in the generation of electrical power in the fuel cell.

In an embodiment in which stack temperature is an operating parameterwhich is adjusted: prior to establishing a drying condition, a coolantis typically circulated through the stack to maintain the temperature ofthe stack within a desired operating range, and then in step (a) thestack temperature can be increased by stopping coolant circulationthrough the stack.

In an embodiment in which reactant relative humidity is an operatingparameter which is adjusted: typically prior to establishing a dryingcondition at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams directed to thestack is humidified, and then in step (a) the degree of humidificationof at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams can be reduced. This canbe accomplished, by directing at least some of the stream to the stackwithout humidification or with reduced humidification. For example, atleast some of the stream can be directed to the stack in fluid isolationfrom the humidifier, or the amount of water transferred to the supplystream can be reduced or eliminated

In other embodiments at least one of the oxidant and fuelstoichiometries and/or flow rates can be increased, or at least one ofthe oxidant and fuel stream pressures can decreased in step (a) to causethe stack to operate under a drying condition.

In preferred embodiments, in step (b) a parameter indicative of stackperformance is monitored and the operation of the system is ceased whenthe stack performance falls below a threshold value. Suitable parametersindicative of stack performance include, for example, the resistance,impedance or voltage of one or more fuel cells in the stack. The amountof water removed should be enough to remove at least some of the excesswater from the fuel cell, but should not be so much as to dry out themembrane. Preferably the membrane water level falls is not permitted tofall below its critical moisture level (the minimum amount of waterneeded for the membrane to be adequately ionically conductive. Thus, thethreshold value for stack performance can be selected to correspond to acritical membrane moisture level or to a moisture level a predeterminedamount above the critical membrane moisture level.

In some embodiments the method can further comprise reducing the powersupplied to the external circuit, prior to interrupting the supply ofpower from the stack to the external circuit. Whether or not the methodcomprises reducing the power supplied, it can further comprise varyingthe supply of power during the drying condition, before the supply ofpower to the external circuit is interrupted. For example, the powersupplied can be intermittently reduced to zero. In another example, thepower supplied is reduced from a first power output to a second poweroutput, and then varied between the second power output and a thirdpower output. In some embodiments the second power output is about fiveto ten percent of the first power output and the third power output isless than the second power output, and can be zero. The power output canbe varied at a suitable constant or variable frequency. In certainsituations the power output is desirably varied about every one to tenseconds.

As the electrochemical reaction stops after the stack is disconnectedfrom the external circuit, interrupting the supply of power from thestack to the external circuit before taking steps to institute thedrying condition, can make it easier to establish drying condition, asthen product water is not being produced in the stack. So, in anotheraspect a method of ceasing operation of an electric power generatingsystem comprises in sequential order:

-   -   (a) interrupting the supply of power from the fuel cell stack to        the external circuit;    -   (b) establishing a drying condition in which there is a net        outflux of water from the stack; and    -   (c) flowing at least one of the fuel and oxidant streams through        the stack under the drying condition until the water content in        the stack has been reduced.

Step (b) can comprise adjusting one or more of the stack temperature,the oxidant and/or fuel stream relative humidities, flow rates, orpressures. These parameters can be adjusted as described above to assistin establishing a drying condition.

In step (c) of this second aspect, a parameter indicative of the watercontent of the stack can be monitored and the flow of at least one ofthe oxidant and fuel streams through the stack under the dryingcondition stopped when the water content of the stack falls below athreshold value. Suitable parameters indicative of the water content ofthe stack include, for example, the resistance, impedance or opencircuit voltage of one or more fuel cells in the stack, or the relativehumidity of at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams exiting thestack. The threshold value for stack performance can be selected tocorrespond to a critical membrane moisture level or to a moisture levela predetermined amount above the critical membrane moisture level, forthe membrane electrolyte in the solid polymer fuel cell(s) in the stack.

An electric power generation system comprises a fuel cell stackconnectable to an external circuit for supplying electric power to theexternal circuit. The stack comprises at least one solid polymer fuelcell and fluid flow passages through the stack. The system furthercomprises a sensor assembly connected to the stack for monitoring atleast one parameter indicative of stack performance, and a controllerfor controlling at least one stack operating parameter. The stackoperating parameter controller can comprise a microcontroller. A controlsystem is provided which is communicative with the sensor assembly andthe stack operating parameter controller. Upon receipt of a shut downinstruction from the control system, the stack operating parametercontroller is operable to adjust at least one stack operating parametersuch that the stack operates in a drying condition. This causes a netoutflux of water from the stack, and the system operates until the watercontent in the stack has been reduced. Suitable parameters indicative ofstack performance include resistance, impedance or voltage of at leastone fuel cell in the stack.

The sensor assembly can further comprise at least one sensor formonitoring one or more stack operating parameters. Suitable parametersinclude the relative humidity, stoichiometry, flow rate or pressure ofat least one of the oxidant or fuel streams, or the stack temperature orthe coolant inlet and outlet temperatures. The sensor assembly caninclude one or more sensor cells, such as described in InternationalApplication No. PCT/CA99/00611, filed Jul. 2, 1999, entitled “SensorCell for an Electrochemical Fuel Cell Stack”.

The stack operating parameter controller preferably comprises apparatusto control at least one stack operating parameter, such as thosedescribed above. For example, it can comprise oxidant stoichiometrycontrol apparatus, such as a compressor connected to the oxidant inletpassage. It can comprise pressure control apparatus, such as a pressureregulator on at least one of an oxidant and fuel passage. It cancomprise stack temperature control apparatus comprising a coolant systemhaving a coolant passage through the stack and a coolant pumpcommunicative with the control system.

In some embodiments, the electric power generation system can furthercomprise a humidifier for humidifying at least one of a fuel or oxidantstream supplied to the stack during normal operation. The controlapparatus can then comprise a humidifier bypass system having at leastone bypass conduit for directing at least some of at least one of fuelor oxidant to the stack in fluid isolation from the humidifier. Uponreceipt of a shut down instruction from the control system, thehumidifier bypass system can direct at least some of the oxidant or fuelstreams through the associated bypass conduit. The bypass conduit can,for example, comprise an inlet end connected to one of the reactantstream passages at a location upstream of the humidifier, and an outletend connected to the same reactant stream passage at a locationdownstream of the humidifier. In another example, the bypass conduit cancomprise an inlet end connectable to a reactant supply, and an outletend connected to one of the reactant stream inlet passages at a locationdownstream of the humidifier. The humidifier bypass system can comprisea bypass inlet valve connected to one of the reactant passages at alocation upstream of the humidifier, and a bypass outlet valve connectedto the same reactant passage at a location downstream of the humidifier,wherein the bypass conduit is connected to the bypass inlet and outletvalves.

In certain embodiments, the electric power generation system can furthercomprise apparatus for varying the amount of power supplied to theexternal circuit, for example, it may] can include a transient loadwhich can be intermittently connected to receive power from the fuelcell stack. The system can further comprise apparatus for varying thefrequency and duration of connection of the transient load.

In the above embodiments of an electric power generation system, thecontrol system is preferably operable such that the drying operation isdiscontinued when the parameter indicative of stack performance measuredby the sensor assembly reaches a threshold value.

The aspects described above can be employed to improve the freezetolerance and cold start-up capability of an electric power generatingsystem, by removing at least some of the excess water from fuel cells inthe system before the temperature of the system falls below the freezingtemperature of water.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an exploded side view of a typical solid polymerelectrochemical fuel cell with a membrane electrode assembly interposedbetween two fluid flow field plates.

FIG. 2 is a perspective cut-away view of an electrochemical fuel cellstack.

FIG. 3 is a dimensionless representation of the net water flux in a fuelcell obtained under different operating conditions.

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the change in cell voltage and resistance overtime for a fuel cell operated under different conditions.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the change of resistance over time in a fuelcell stack operated under a drying condition.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a fuel cell electric power generationsystem incorporating a humidifier bypass purge system, actuators, andsensors that can cooperate to perform a controlled fuel cell dryingoperation at shutdown.

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the change in voltage over time for a fuelcell stack shut down procedure in which the power supplied to theexternal circuit was substantially reduced and then intermittentlydisconnected during the drying operation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENT(S)

FIG. 1 illustrates a typical fuel cell 10. Fuel cell 10 includes amembrane electrode assembly 12 interposed between anode flow field plate14 and cathode flow field plate 16. Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 12comprises an ion exchange membrane 20 interposed between two electrodes,namely, anode 21 and cathode 22. In conventional fuel cells, anode 21and cathode 22 comprise a substrate of porous electrically conductivesheet material 23 and 24, respectively, for example, carbon fiber paperor carbon cloth. Each substrate has a thin layer of electrocatalyst 25and 26, respectively, disposed on one surface thereof at the interfacewith membrane 20 to render each electrode electrochemically active.

As further shown in FIG. 1, anode flow field plate 14 has at least onefuel flow channel 14 a formed in its surface facing anode 21. Similarly,cathode separator plate 16 has at least one oxidant flow channel 16 aformed in its surface facing cathode 22. When assembled against thecooperating surfaces of electrodes 21 and 22, channels 14 a and 16 aform the reactant flow field passages for the fuel and oxidant,respectively. The flow field plates 14, 16 are electrically conductive.Coolant channels (not shown) can also be formed on the flow field plate14, 16 (typically on the other side of the surface having the reactantflow channels) to provide passages for flow of a coolant therethrough.

Turning now to FIG. 2, a fuel cell stack 100 includes a plurality offuel cell assemblies, a series of which is designated as 111 in FIG. 2.Each of the fuel cell assemblies includes a membrane electrode assembly112 interposed between a pair of fluid flow field plates 114, 116. Fuelcell stack 100 also includes a first end plate 130 and a second endplate 140.

Plate 130 includes fluid inlet ports 132, 134, 136 for introducing fluidfuel, oxidant and coolant streams, respectively, to the stack 100. Plate140 includes fluid outlet ports 142, 144, 146 for exhausting fluid fuel,oxidant and coolant streams, respectively, from the stack 100. The fluidoutlet ports 142, 144, 146 are fluidly connected to the correspondingfluid inlet ports 132, 134, 136 via passages within the stack 100.

The fuel cell assemblies have a series of openings formed therein, whichcooperate with corresponding openings in adjacent assemblies to formfluid manifolds 152, 154, 156, 162, 164, 166 within the stack 100. Thefluid manifolds are each circumscribed by a sealant material or gasket.In addition, a peripheral seal at the exterior perimeter of each fuelcell fluidly isolates the interior, electrochemically active portion ofthe fuel cell from the external environment.

A fuel stream entering the stack 100 via fuel inlet port 132 is directedto the individual fuel flow field plates via manifold 152. After passingthrough the fuel flow field plate channels, the fuel stream is collectedin manifold 162 and exhausted from the stack via fuel outlet port 142.Similarly, an oxidant stream entering the stack 100 via oxidant inletport 134 is directed to individual oxidant flow field plates viamanifold 154. After passing through the oxidant flow field platechannels, the oxidant stream is collected in manifold 164 and exhaustedfrom the stack via oxidant outlet port 144. A fluid coolant (typicallywater) introduced via coolant inlet port 136 is directed to coolantchannels (not shown) in each flow field plate, or to coolant plateassemblies (not shown) in the stack 100 via manifold 156. The coolantstream is collected in manifold 166 and exhausted from stack 100 viacoolant outlet port 146. Coolant manifolds 156, 166 can be fitted with acompliant mechanism (not shown), such as tube cushions or inserts madeof closed cell foam, to accommodate the expansion of freezing water. Tierods 170 extend between end plates 130 and 140 to compress and securestack 100 in its assembled state with fastening nuts 172 disposed atopposite ends of each tie rod 170, and disc springs 174 interposedbetween the fastening nuts 172 and end plates 130, 140.

Each fuel cell 10 in stack 100 can operate satisfactorily only whensufficient water is provided to keep membrane 20 wet and tonicallyconductive. Water can be introduced in the reactant streams and isproduced in the electrochemical reaction at the cathode 22. If thetheoretical maximum quantity of water escaping from fuel cell 10 invapor form via the outlet reactant streams (assuming exhaust gases aresaturated with water vapor) is greater than the water quantityintroduced and produced, MEA dehydration will tend to occur. Duringoperation, it is important to provide adequate humidification to theMEA, so as to avoid dehydrating the membrane. Mathematically thiscondition is expressed as:N _(w,o,in) +N _(w,f,in) +N _(w,p) ≧N _(w,o,out) +N _(w,f,out)  (1)wherein

N_(w,o,in) is the inlet oxidant molar water flow rate;

N_(w,f,in) is the inlet fuel molar water flow rate;

N_(w,p) is the produced water molar flow rate;

N_(w,o,out) is outlet oxidant molar water flow rate;

N_(w,f,out) is the outlet fuel molar water flow rate.

Equation 1 terms are given by: $\begin{matrix}{N_{w,o,{i\quad n}} = {\frac{v_{o}}{\varphi_{o}}\frac{iA}{4F}\frac{{RH}_{o,{i\quad n}}p_{s,o,{i\quad n}}}{\left( {p_{o,{i\quad n}} - {{RH}_{o,{i\quad n}}p_{s,o,{i\quad n}}}} \right)}}} & (2) \\{N_{w,f,{i\quad n}} = {\frac{v_{f}}{\varphi_{f}}\frac{iA}{2F}\frac{{RH}_{f,{i\quad n}}p_{s,f,{i\quad n}}}{\left( {p_{f,{i\quad n}} - {{RH}_{f,{i\quad n}}p_{s,f,{i\quad n}}}} \right)}}} & (3) \\{N_{w,p} = \frac{iA}{2F}} & (4) \\{N_{w,o,{out}} = {\left( {{\frac{v_{o}}{\varphi_{o}}\frac{iA}{4F}} - \frac{iA}{4F}} \right)\frac{{RH}_{o,{out}}p_{s,o,{out}}}{\left( {p_{o,{out}} - {{RH}_{o,{out}}p_{s,o,{out}}}} \right)}}} & (5) \\{N_{w,f,{out}} = {\left( {{\frac{v_{f}}{\varphi_{f}}\frac{iA}{2F}} - \frac{iA}{2F}} \right)\frac{{RH}_{f,{out}}p_{s,f,{out}}}{\left( {p_{f,{out}} - {{RH}_{f,{out}}p_{s,f,{out}}}} \right)}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$wherein,

-   -   A is the geometric active surface area;    -   i is the current density;    -   F is the Faraday constant;    -   p_(f,in) is the inlet fuel pressure;    -   p_(f,out) is the outlet fuel pressure;    -   p_(o,in) is the inlet oxidant pressure;    -   p_(o,out) is the outlet oxidant pressure;    -   p_(s,f,in) is the inlet fuel water vapor saturation pressure;    -   p_(s,f,out) is the outlet fuel water vapor saturation pressure;    -   p_(s,o,in) is the inlet oxidant water vapor saturation pressure;    -   p_(s,o,out) is the outlet oxidant water vapor saturation        pressure;    -   RH_(f,in) is the inlet fuel relative humidity;    -   RH_(f,out) is the outlet fuel relative humidity;    -   RH_(o,in) is the inlet oxidant relative humidity;    -   RH_(o,out) is the outlet oxidant relative humidity;    -   ν_(f) is the fuel stoichiometry;    -   ν_(o) is the oxidant stoichiometry;    -   φ_(f) is the hydrogen volume fraction in the dry fuel;    -   φ_(o) is the oxygen volume fraction in the dry oxidant.

Equations 5 and 6 can be somewhat simplified when it is realized thatfor outlet relative humidities lower than 100%, the MEA will besubjected to dehydrating conditions. Therefore, outlet relativehumidities of 100% represent a limiting case defining a boundary betweendrying and wetting conditions (assuming that the exhaust gases aresaturated with water vapor). By introducing equations (2) to (6) inequation (1) and simplifying with RH_(o,out)=1 and RH_(f,out)=1, thefollowing equation is obtained: $\begin{matrix}{{{\frac{v_{o}}{2\varphi_{o}}\frac{{RH}_{o,{i\quad n}}p_{s,o,{i\quad n}}}{\left( {p_{o,{i\quad n}} - {{RH}_{o,{i\quad n}}p_{s,o,{i\quad n}}}} \right)}} + {\frac{v_{f}}{\varphi_{f}}\frac{{RH}_{f,{i\quad n}}p_{s,f,{i\quad n}}}{\left( {p_{f,{i\quad n}} - {{RH}_{f,{i\quad n}}p_{s,f,{i\quad n}}}} \right)}} + 1} \geq {{\frac{1}{2}\left( {\frac{v_{o}}{\varphi_{o}} - 1} \right)\frac{p_{s,o,{out}}}{\left( {p_{o,{out}} - p_{s,o,{out}}} \right)}} + {\left( {\frac{v_{f}}{\varphi_{f}} - 1} \right)\frac{p_{s,f,{out}}}{\left( {p_{f,{out}} - p_{s,f,{out}}} \right)}}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

The water vapor saturation pressure is computed using a temperaturedependent empirical equation:log p _(s)=−2.1794+0.02953T−9.1837×10⁻⁵ T ²+1.4454×10⁻⁷ T ³  (8)

The water vapor saturation pressure at each of the fuel and oxidantinlets and outlets can thus be determined by measuring the temperatureat each location T_(f,in), T_(f,out), T_(o,in), T_(o out). Generally,these temperatures are closely related to the inlet and outlet coolanttemperatures (T_(c,in), T_(c,out)), which in practice are easier toaccurately measure due to the larger heat capacity of the coolant.

Each of the variables in equation (7) represents an operating parameterof fuel cell stack 100. As written, equation (7) defines an operatingcondition that produces a wetting condition (net influx of water intocell) or water balance (equality in equation (7)). A “water balance” isdefined as a balance between water influx and water outflux when theoutflux is calculated with the assumption that the exhaust is saturatedwith water vapor. If the equation was rewritten so that the left side isless than the right side, the equation defines an operating conditionthat produces a drying condition (net outflux of water).

While it is generally desirable to operate fuel cell 10 under a wettingcondition such that membrane 20 is properly hydrated, excess accumulatedwater in MEA 12 is not desired if the stack 100 is to be cold started ator below 0° C. after the stack has been exposed to freezing conditionsfor an extended period of time. “Excess water” is hereby defined as theamount of water exceeding the minimum required to keep the membraneadequately ionically conductive (“critical membrane moisture level”).While some water in MEA 12 is needed to keep membrane 20 moist, excesswater in MEA 12 will accumulate in pores of substrates 23, 24 and inflow channels 14 a, 16 a and will eventually freeze when the stack isexposed to temperatures below 0° C. for prolonged periods. If the stackis started before the MEA 12 has a chance to thaw, ice in pores ofsubstrates 23, 24 can block or impede the flow of reactant throughsubstrate 23, 24 and to membrane 20 in order for the electrochemicalreaction to proceed. Furthermore, ice accumulation can cause mechanicalstresses inside fuel cell 10 that can cause damage to stack 100. It istheorized that reducing the quantity of excess water accumulated in flowchannels 14 a, 16 a and in the substrate pores of MEA 12 before stack100 freezes, will reduce reactant flow blockage caused by ice, and thusreduce the time required for stack 100 to reach a nominal operatingstate after a cold start-up from below 0° C. or improve cell performanceat sub 0° C. temperatures. This can be achieved by operating each fuelcell 10 in stack 100 under a drying condition for a period of time thatis sufficient to remove at least some excess water from MEA 12 but notexcessively dry out membrane 20.

As shown in equation (7) a number of stack operating parameters can beadjusted to change the operating condition of fuel cell 10, including,oxidant and fuel stoichiometries, compositions (that is, volume fractionin reactant stream), relative humidities, pressures, temperatures, andrelative flow configurations (for example, concurrent and counter-flowoperation). One or more of these parameters can be adjusted so that fuelcell operation is changed from a wetting condition to a drying conditionor to a water balance.

A series of tests were performed to verify the MEA water flux equations(1) through (7) set out above. All tests were performed using a BallardMk 513 single cell having a catalyst loading of 0.3 mg Pt/cm², an N112Nafion® membrane, and Toray CFP TGP-H-90 electrode substrates, and underthe following common operating parameters: 80° C. coolant outlet, atemperature gradient of +10° C. (temperature difference between inletand outlet coolant temperatures) at a current density of 1 A/cm²,air/methanol reformate (63.5% H₂), 4% air bleed, 2.5 bara fuel pressureand 100% fuel inlet relative humidity (RH). The air inlet pressure,oxidant/fuel stoichiometries, and nominal current densities differedbetween each test. In each test, the fuel cell was first operated undera wetting condition for a period of time sufficient for the fuel cell toproduce a steady state voltage. Then, the air inlet relative humidity ofthe fuel cell was reduced from 100% to 0% and the performance of thefuel cell was monitored by measuring the fuel cell resistance andvoltage.

FIG. 3 is a dimensionless representation of equation (7). The x and yaxes represent the right hand and left hand sides of equation (7)respectively and the dashed line indicates an equality in equation (7)(water balance). The dashed line therefore separates the graph into awetting region (y>x), and a drying region (x>y). The operatingconditions of the fuel cell in each of the three test runs astheoretically derived from equations (1) through (7) are plotted in FIG.3 as triangles, squares and circles, respectively. Filled symbolsindicate a test being run at 100% air inlet relative humidity andunfilled symbols indicate a test being run at 0% air inlet relativehumidity. It can be seen that the change in relative humidity for eachof the three test runs shifted the fuel cell operation from the wettingregion to either another location in the wetting region closer to waterbalance (test 1), or into the drying region (tests 2 and 3). The fuelcell was then operated under each of the three test conditions; in eachtest, the air inlet relative humidity was switched from 100% to 0% atTime=0. The cell responses to the change in relative humidity wererecorded by measuring both MEA voltage and resistance and are plotted inFIG. 4. Cell performance is expected to drop as the membrane dries out;an increase in cell resistance and a decrease in cell voltage likelyindicate that the fuel cell is being dehydrated.

The first test (illustrated as triangles in FIGS. 3 and 4) was conductedat 0.542 A/cm² current density, 2.6 bara oxidant pressure, and 1.5/1.3oxidant/fuel stoichiometry. The first test was designed to shift thefuel cell from a point in the wetting region to another point in thewetting region that is closer to the water balance (dashed line in FIG.3) upon the change in inlet RH (at Time=0). A small change in cellvoltage and resistance (0.06 mΩ and 15 mV respectively) was found afterthe oxidant relative humidity was reduced from 100% to −0% at T=0. Sincethe cell was in theory still operating within the wetting region afterthe RH was changed, no significant reduction in cell performance wasexpected due to membrane drying. However, the operating points plottedin FIG. 3 have uncertainties attached to them, and it is possible thatthe first test run was in fact operating just within the drying regionor that the cell performance was affected by mass transfer or othereffects.

The second test (illustrated by squares in FIGS. 3 and 4) was conductedat 0.312 A/cm² current density, 1.5 bara oxidant pressure, and 1.5/1.3oxidant/fuel stoichiometry. The second test was designed to shift thefuel cell from the wetting region to just inside the drying region. Asexpected, the MEA resistance significantly increased and the MEA voltagesignificantly decreased (0.25 mΩ and 68 mV respectively) then appearedto reach a steady state after about 4 hours. According to the waterbalance equations, this steady state is predicted to be only apparent,and eventually, the MEA should continue to dehydrate and eventuallyfail.

The third test (illustrated by circles in FIGS. 3 and 4) was conductedat 0.021 A/cm² current density, 1.1 bara oxidant pressure, and 5/2oxidant/fuel stoichiometry. As shown in FIG. 3, the operating conditionof the fuel cell after the relative humidity was reduced to 0% is deeperinside the drying region than the first two test cases, and thus, agreater drying was expected. This expectation was confirmed, as cellperformance was found to drop faster and by a greater magnitude than inthe first two tests.

If the fuel cell is operated under a drying condition to remove excesswater therein, the drying operation should be stopped before themembrane water level falls below its critical moisture level. As themembrane dries, and especially after the membrane water level fallsbelow its critical moisture level, the internal fuel cell resistanceincreases and the voltage output decreases significantly. To ensure thatthe drying operation does not cause the membrane to fall below thecritical moisture level, the fuel cell resistance and voltage arepreferably monitored during the drying operation. The drying operationis preferably stopped once the resistance or impedance has increasedabove a threshold level (or the voltage has decreased below a thresholdlevel).

This threshold level can be determined empirically as follows. First, afuel cell (or stack) is operated normally (under a wetting condition)and then under a drying condition and its resistance (and/orvoltage)/time curve is determined. The fuel cell or stack is then frozenand restarted at a sub 0° C. temperature under a normal (wetting)operating condition, and the initial performance (before the stacktemperature exceeds 0° C.) of the fuel cell or stack is measured. Ifthere is a degradation in initial performance, it can be concluded thatthe membrane was dried beyond its critical moisture level, and that thedrying time has to be shortened (or the rate of drying reduced).Progressively shorter periods of drying times can be tested until adrying time (and corresponding resistance) is found that does not dryout the membrane such that the initial cold start-up performance isdegraded. With enough empirical testing, a database can be compiled forappropriate drying times and rates for various operating conditions.

An example of a resistance/time curve is shown in FIG. 5. The resistanceof a Ballard fuel cell stack (10 cells) was monitored during a dryingoperation. The stack was initially operated at steady state producing300 A with an air/fuel stoichiometry ratio of 1.8/1.2 and at a stacktemperature of 70° C. The inlet oxidant and fuel streams were humidifiedby passing same through a humidifier upstream of the stack. At time=0,humidification of the oxidant and fuel streams was stopped and theexternal load was disconnected from the stack. At about 70° C., a dryingoperation was then carried out in which the unhumidified oxidant andfuel streams continued to flow through the stacks at 89/25 slpm at 0.6barg for 120 seconds. A relatively linear but small increase inresistance from about 3 mΩ to about 5 mΩ was observed after 60 seconds;a steeper increase in slope was observed at around 90 seconds andcontinued in a generally linear fashion until the drying operation wasstopped; the resistance measured at the end of 120 seconds was 12 mΩ.

A series of shutdown and cold start tests was also performed on thestack, the resistance of the stack after each drying operation wasmeasured. The stack was initially operated at steady state producing 300A with an air/fuel stoichiometry ratio of 1.8/1.2 and at a stacktemperature of 70° C. The inlet oxidant and fuel streams were humidifiedby passing same through a humidifier upstream of the stack. At time=0,humidification of the oxidant and fuel streams was stopped and theexternal load was disconnected from the stack. At about 70° C., a dryingoperation was then carried out in which the unhumidified oxidant andfuel streams continued to flow through the stacks at a fuel/air rate of25/89 slpm (for 10 cells) at 0.6 barg. A drying operation was appliedfor each test run for different time lengths and the corresponding stackresistance was measured at the end of the drying operation, as follows:12 mΩ (test 1), 7.2 mΩ (test 2), 6.23 mΩ (test 3), 5.2 mΩ (test 4), and5.99 mΩ (test 5). The stack was then allowed to cool to about 20° C. andwas subjected to a second drying operation of unhumidified fuel and airflow at a fuel/air rate of 25/89 slpm (10 cell) and at 0.6 barg forabout 1 minute.

The stack was then cooled to about −10° C. and held at that temperature.Thereafter, the stack was started at about −10° C. and the resistancewas measured for each test run as follows: 16 mΩ (test 1), 10 mΩ (test2), 9.23 mΩ(test 3), 6.2 mΩ (test 4), and 7.89 mΩ (test 5). Current wasvaried in steps of 5 A between a range of 5 and 50 A for about 10seconds per step and the cell voltage at each current was measured. Itwas observed that the higher the measured stack resistance (both atshutdown and at start-up), the lower the measured cell voltage, that is,the worse the initial cold start performance, that is, the performanceof the cell below 0° C. It is theorized that the performance lossescorrelate with the degree of MEA dryness prior to freezing, which isdependent on the parameters of the drying operation during shut down.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a fuel cell electric power generationsystem 200 comprising a fuel cell stack 210 according to one embodimentof the present apparatus. Fuel cell stack 210 includes negative andpositive bus plates 212, 214, respectively, to which an external circuitcomprising a variable load 216 is electrically connectable by closingswitch 218. System 200 includes a fuel (hydrogen) circuit, an oxidant(air) circuit, and a coolant water circuit. The reactant and coolantstreams are circulated in the system in various conduits illustratedschematically in FIG. 6.

During normal operation, a hydrogen supply 220 is humidified inhumidifier 270 then delivered to stack 210 via hydrogen conduit 261.Flow through conduit 261 is controlled by hydrogen pressure regulator221. Hydrogen delivery pressure is measured by pressure sensor 271. Ifhumidification of the hydrogen stream is not desired, hydrogen flow canbe bypassed around humidifier 270 through three-way valve 272 connectedto conduit 261 upstream of humidifier 270, through hydrogen bypassconduit 274 connected to valve 272, and through a three-way bypass valve276 connected to conduit 261 downstream of humidifier 270. Flow throughbypass conduit 274 is controlled by hydrogen pressure regulator 278.Alternatively, and for certain types of humidifiers, the humidifier canbe bypassed by reducing or stopping the transfer of water to a reactantstream passing through the humidifier.

Water in the hydrogen exhaust stream exiting stack 210 is accumulated ina knock-out drum 222, which can be drained by opening valve 223.Unreacted hydrogen is recirculated to stack 210 by a pump 224 inrecirculation loop 225. The relative humidity of the hydrogen exhauststream is measurable by relative humidity sensor 280.

During normal operation, air (oxidant) is humidified in humidifier 270then delivered to stack 210 via oxidant humidification conduit 262.Conduit 262 has an inlet end connectable to a compressor 230 and anoutlet end connected to fuel cell stack 210. Flow through humidificationconduit 262 is controlled by oxidant pressure regulator 231. Oxidantflow rate is measured by mass flow sensor 282 and oxidant pressure ismeasured by pressure sensor 284. If humidification of the oxidant streamis not desired, oxidant flow can be bypassed around humidifier 270through a three-way valve 288 connected to conduit 262 upstream ofhumidifier 270, through oxidant bypass conduit 286 connected to valve288, and through a three-way bypass valve 266 connected to conduit 286downstream of humidifier 270. Flow through bypass conduit 286 iscontrolled by oxidant pressure regulator 290.

Water in the oxidant exhaust stream exiting stack 210 is accumulated inreservoir 232, which can be drained by opening valve 233, and the airstream is vented from the system via valve 234. The relative humidity ofthe air exhaust stream is measured by relative humidity sensor 291.

In coolant water loop 240, water is pumped from reservoir 232 andcirculated through stack 210 by pump 241. The temperature of the wateris adjusted in a heat exchanger 242. The coolant inlet and outlettemperatures are measured by temperature sensors 292, 294.

The cold start capability and freeze tolerance of the system 200 can beimproved by reducing the amount of water remaining within the flowchannels 14 a and 16 a, and in the electrodes of the MEA of each fuelcell in the stack 210 upon cessation of operation and reduction of thestack core temperature to near or below the freezing temperature ofwater. As used herein, “freeze tolerance” refers to the ability of afuel cell or fuel cell stack to maintain substantially the sameperformance after one or more freeze/thaw/cold start cycles, where thestack after being shut off is exposed to sub 0° C. temperatures for anextended period of time then is cold started below 0° C. or is thawedabove 0° C. then started.

On shutdown, the operating parameters of fuel cell stack 210 areselected so that stack 210 operates under a drying condition until thevoltage drops below (or resistance or impedance increases above) athreshold level. A number of different stack operating parameters can beadjusted to change the operation of stack 210 from a wetting conditionto a drying condition, such as air or fuel flow rates, stoichiometries,temperatures, pressures, compositions, and relative humidities. Asuggested shutdown sequence comprising a drying operation is as follows:

-   -   (a) receive shutdown instructions;    -   (b) turn off coolant pump 241 so that coolant flow is stopped        (increases stack operating temperature);    -   (c) actuate bypass valves 272, 276, 288 and 266 so that reactant        supply to stack bypasses humidifier 270 (reduces the reactant        inlet relative humidities);    -   (d) adjust compressor operation to decrease oxidant supply        pressure; (e) adjust fuel pressure regulator 278 to decrease        fuel inlet pressure;    -   (f) once stack resistance or impedance has exceeded (or the        voltage has decreased below) a predetermined threshold value,        shut off compressor 230 and close valves 221, 231, 278 and 290        (shuts off the fuel and oxidant supplies to the stack);    -   (g) shut off hydrogen recirculation pump 224; and (h) open        switch 218 (disconnects the stack from the external circuit).

Steps (b) to (h) should be completed before the stack 210 overheats.Empirical testing can be performed to determine the maximum period oftime for performing these steps before overheating occurs. Alternativelyor in addition, the stack temperature can be monitored during the shutdown operation; if the stack gets too hot, the coolant pump 241 can bereactivated.

System 200 illustrated in FIG. 6 has a number of sensors to monitorvarious stack operating parameters during stack operation, includingrelative humidity sensors 280 and 291 located in the exhaust conduitsdownstream of the stack, reactant supply pressure sensors 271, 284, andinlet and outlet coolant temperature sensors 292 and 294. While thesesensors are sufficient to carry out the drying operation (b) to (h)described above, additional sensors (not shown) are required if data forthe variables specified in the water flux equations (1) to (8) aredesired, for example, mass flow sensors for the oxidant and fuelsupplies, fuel and oxidant relative humidity sensors upstream of stack100, fuel and oxidant pressure sensors downstream of the stack, stackcurrent sensor, and oxygen and hydrogen concentration sensors. Thesesensors can be useful to precisely monitor the water flux in and out ofthe cell, so that a water management program can be carried out duringstack operation to prevent excess water from building up in the stack.By carrying out such a water management program, the amount of waterremaining at shutdown can be reduced, thereby reducing the need fordrying operation. Such a water management program can also improvesystem performance and efficiency during operation, as the masstransport limitations associated with excess water accumulated in thefuel cell will be reduced.

System 200 as illustrated in FIG. 6 is supplied with air from thecompressor 230 and with pure hydrogen from a pressurized hydrogen tank220. For greater output voltages, it is advantageous to supply fuelcells with more concentrated reactant streams and preferably with purereactant streams (for example, pure hydrogen and oxygen reactants). Thisis an advantage because the presence of relatively large amounts ofnon-reactive components in the reactant streams can significantlyincrease kinetic and mass transport losses in the fuel cells. However,in certain applications it may be impractical to store and provide thedesired reactants in pure form. In this connection, hydrogen can besupplied to system 200 by reforming a supply of methanol, natural gas,or the like on site or on board (not shown).

The reformed hydrogen stream tends to contain some carbon dioxidegenerated as a result of the reforming operation. Air typically has aoxygen concentration of about 21%; the major component in the diluteoxidant air stream is nitrogen. Known approaches can be implemented insystem 200 to increase the concentration of the reactant in the reformedfuel and/or air streams, that is, enrichment, to improve the performanceof system 200. Such known approaches typically involve separating out acomponent from the reactant stream, including cryogenic, membrane, andpressure swing adsorption methods. In a cryogenic method, componentseparation is achieved by preferentially condensing a component out of agaseous stream. In a membrane method, component separation is achievedby passing the stream over the surface of a membrane that is selectivelypermeable to a component in the stream. In a pressure swing adsorption(PSA) method, a gas component is separated from a gas stream bypreferential adsorption onto a suitable adsorbent under pressure. A PSAapparatus (not shown) can be installed on the fuel supply conduit 261between the fuel supply 220 and the stack 210 to provide an enrichedfuel stream to stack 210. The PSA apparatus can also be installed on theoxidant supply conduit 262 between the air compressor 230 and the stack210 to provide an enriched oxidant stream to stack 210. By controllingthe degree of enrichment provided by the PSA apparatus, the fuel andoxidant concentrations can be controlled (φ_(f), φ_(o)) to encourage thestack to operate under a drying condition during shut down.

System 200 shown in FIG. 6 can be configured so that the oxidant andfuel stream pass through stack 210 in a concurrent flow arrangement.According to another embodiment, one of the fuel and oxidant streams canbe reversed so that the oxidant and fuel streams pass through the stack210 in a counter-flow arrangement (not shown). Such counter-flowarrangement will affect the temperature gradients in the stack 210.Temperature sensors (not shown) can be installed in the oxidant and fuelpassages to measure the inlet and outlet oxidant and fuel streamtemperatures, so that the effect of the temperatures on the waterbalance formulas can be determined. It may be desirable in embodimentsof the present method, to intermittently reverse the reactant flowdirections during operation or shut down. An example of apparatus andmethods for reversing the relative flow directions of oxidant and fuelthrough a fuel cell stack is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,935,726.

It should be noted that the stack can be disconnected from the externalcircuit prior to starting a drying operation. In such case, an auxiliarypower source such as a battery (not shown) is provided to power thevarious components in the system 200 (for example, air compressor,pumps, actuators, sensors). After the external circuit has beendisconnected, N_(w,p) becomes 0 in equation (7) as the electrochemicalreaction producing water substantially ceases. Substituting dry oxidantand fuel flow rates N_(o,in), N_(f,in), for oxidant and fuelstoichiometries, and equations (2) to (6) in equation (1), the followingwater flux equation is derived (wetting condition or water balance):$\begin{matrix}{{{\frac{v_{o,{i\quad n}}}{\varphi_{o}}\frac{{RH}_{o,{i\quad n}}p_{s,o,{i\quad n}}}{\left( {p_{o,{i\quad n}} - {{RH}_{o,{i\quad n}}p_{s,o,{i\quad n}}}} \right)}} + {\frac{v_{f,{i\quad n}}}{\varphi_{f}}\frac{{RH}_{f,{i\quad n}}p_{s,f,{i\quad n}}}{\left( {p_{f,{i\quad n}} - {{RH}_{f,{i\quad n}}p_{s,f,{i\quad n}}}} \right)}}} \geq {{\frac{N_{o,{i\quad n}}}{\varphi_{o}}\frac{p_{s,o,{out}}}{\left( {p_{out} - p_{s,o,{out}}} \right)}} + {\frac{N_{f,{i\quad n}}}{\varphi_{f}}\frac{p_{s,f,{out}}}{\left( {p_{f,{out}} - p_{s,f,{out}}} \right)}}}} & (9)\end{matrix}$

Note that the primary difference between equations (7) and (9) is thatthe net water influx is reduced by elimination of the water productionterm N_(w,p) and that the reactant flow rates cannot be defined in termsof stoichiometries, since current is 0. Using equation (9), stackoperating parameters can be determined that will cause the stack tooperate under a drying condition; equation (9) can be verified byempirical testing using the same test methods that were applied to testequation (7).

In such a shutdown procedure where the external circuit is disconnectedbefore a drying operation is performed, the voltage measured will be theopen circuit voltage (V_(OC)) (or open circuit resistance or impedanceif resistance or impedance are measured). Empirical testing can beperformed to determine at what voltage drop (or resistance or impedanceincrease) the drying operation should be stopped.

Alternatively, rather than disconnecting the external circuit entirelybefore a drying operation is performed, the power supplied to theexternal circuit can be reduced and/or varied during the dryingoperation. Reducing or varying the supply of power can result in lesswater production thereby making it easier to establish a dryingcondition. In a preferred embodiment, a small electrical load can beperiodically connected and disconnected so that the voltage alternatesbetween V_(OC) (the open circuit voltage) and V_(T) (the voltageobserved during the periodic connection of the electrical load). Thiscan allow more accurate control of the drying operation at shutdown thanwhen the external circuit is disconnected, as V_(T) is more sensitive tothe water content of the stack than V_(OC).

FIG. 7 provides an example of a voltage/time curve where the powersupplied to the external circuit was substantially reduced and thenintermittently disconnected during the drying operation. The stackperformance was monitored during the drying operation by monitoring thevoltage of the stack (as it oscillated between V_(OC) and V_(T)). ABallard fuel cell stack (10 cells) was initially operated at steadystate producing 300 A with an air/fuel stoichiometry ratio of 1.8/1.2and at a stack temperature of 70° C. The inlet oxidant and fuel streamswere humidified by passing same through a humidifier upstream of thestack.

At time=0, the external load was reduced to zero and humidification ofthe oxidant and fuel streams was stopped. A drying operation was thencarried out in which the unhumidified oxidant and fuel streams continuedto flow through the stacks at 37/3.8 slpm at 0.8 barg. A 15 A load wasthen periodically connected to the stack (on for 5 seconds, off for 2seconds). The stack voltage was measured throughout the dryingoperation.

As can be seen in FIG. 7, the change in V_(T) (that is, while thetransient 15 A load was connected) after 500 seconds was significantlylarger than the change in V_(OC) (that is, no external load).

Thus, as the deterioration in stack performance is more apparent fromthe V_(T) measurements, by employing this procedure, the deteriorationin stack performance can be more readily monitored than by measuring thestack voltage under an open circuit condition. Further, as theelectrochemical reaction stops after the stack is disconnected from theexternal circuit, by periodically interrupting the supply of power fromthe stack to the external circuit before the drying operation isperformed, the introduction of additional water during the dryingoperation was be reduced. The periodic connection of the load would haveresulted in some product water production, but less water was beproduced than if power was continuously supplied to the externalcircuit.

The '506 application, from which this application claims prioritybenefits, is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No.09/406,318, entitled “Methods for Improving the Cold Starting Capabilityof an Electrochemical Fuel Cell” filed Sep. 27, 1999. The '318application is, in turn, a continuation-in-part of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 09/138,625 filed Aug. 24, 1998, entitled “Methodand Apparatus for Commencing Operation of a Fuel Cell Electric PowerGeneration System Below the Freezing Temperature of Water”. The '625application is, in turn, a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser.No. 08/659,921 filed Jun. 7, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,798,186 issuedAug. 25, 1998, also entitled “Method and Apparatus for CommencingOperation of a Fuel Cell Electric Power Generation System Below theFreezing Temperature of Water”. The '318, '625 and '921 applications areeach incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

While particular elements, embodiments and applications of the presentinvention have been shown and described, it will be understood, ofcourse, that the invention is not limited thereto since modificationscan be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scopeof the present disclosure, particularly in light of the foregoingteachings.

1-34. (canceled)
 35. An electric power generation system comprising: (a)a fuel cell stack connectable to an external circuit for supplyingelectric power to the external circuit, the stack comprising at leastone solid polymer fuel cell and fluid flow passages through the stack;(b) a sensor assembly connected to the stack for monitoring at least oneparameter indicative of stack performance; (c) a controller forcontrolling at least one stack operating parameter; and (d) a controlsystem communicative with the sensor assembly and the stack operatingparameter controller, such that upon receipt of a shut down instructionfrom the control system, the stack operating parameter controller isoperable to adjust at least one stack operating parameter such that thestack operates in a drying condition that causes a net outflux of waterfrom the stack, until the water content in the stack has been reduced.36. The electric power generation system of claim 35 wherein the sensorassembly comprises a sensor for monitoring a parameter indicative ofstack performance selected from the group consisting of: the resistanceof at least one fuel cell in the stack, the impedance of at least onefuel cell in the stack, and the voltage of at least one fuel cell in thestack.
 37. The electric power generation system of claim 35 wherein thesensor assembly comprises at least one sensor for monitoring the atleast one stack operating parameter.
 38. The electric power generationsystem of claim 37 wherein the sensor assembly comprises a sensor formonitoring a stack operating parameter selected from the groupconsisting of: the relative humidity of at least one of the oxidant andfuel streams; the stoichiometry of at least one of the oxidant and fuelstreams; the flow rate of at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams;the pressure of at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams; and thestack temperature.
 39. The electric power generation system of claim 35wherein the controller comprises apparatus to control at least one stackoperating parameter selected from the group consisting of: the relativehumidity of at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams; thestoichiometry of at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams; the flowrate of at least one of the oxidant and fuel streams; the pressure of atleast one of the oxidant and fuel streams; and the stack temperature.40. The electric power generation system of claim 35 wherein the controlsystem comprises a microcontroller.
 41. The electric power generationsystem of claim 39 further comprising a humidifier for humidifying atleast one of a fuel or oxidant stream supplied to the stack duringnormal operation, and wherein the relative humidity control apparatuscomprises a humidifier bypass system having at least one bypass conduitfor directing at least some of at least one of fuel or oxidant to thestack in fluid isolation from the humidifier.
 42. The electric powergeneration system of claim 41 wherein upon receipt of a shut downinstruction from the control system, the humidifier bypass systemdirects at least some of the oxidant or fuel streams through theassociated bypass conduit.
 43. The electric power generation system ofclaim 42 wherein the bypass conduit comprises an inlet end connected toone of the reactant stream passages at a location upstream of thehumidifier, and an outlet end connected to the same reactant streampassage at a location downstream of the humidifier.
 44. The electricpower generation system of claim 42 wherein the bypass conduit comprisesan inlet end connectable to a reactant supply, and an outlet endconnected to one of the reactant stream inlet passages at a locationdownstream of the humidifier.
 45. The electric power generation systemof claim 42 wherein the humidifier bypass system comprises a bypassinlet valve connected to one of the reactant passages at a locationupstream of the humidifier, and a bypass outlet valve connected to thesame reactant passage at a location downstream of the humidifier, andwherein the bypass conduit is connected to the bypass inlet and outletvalves.
 46. The electric power generation system of claim 39 wherein theoxidant stoichiometry control apparatus comprises a compressor connectedto the oxidant inlet passage.
 47. The electric power generation systemof claim 39 wherein the pressure control apparatus comprises a pressureregulator on at least one of an oxidant and fuel passage.
 48. Theelectric power generation system of claim 39 wherein the stacktemperature control apparatus comprises a coolant system having acoolant passage through the stack and a coolant pump communicative withthe control system.
 49. The electric power generation system of claim 35wherein the control system is operable such that the drying operation isdiscontinued after the parameter indicative of stack performancemeasured by the sensor assembly reaches a threshold value.